The modern interpretation of the South's reaction to the policies of Reconstruction ignores the numbers. There were more free blacks in the South than in the North. As a percentage of the white population, the difference was even more stark. More telling is the roughly four million slaves in the former Confederate states. In 1860 both Mississippi and South Carolina had more slaves than whites. The numbers matter.

Racial attitudes in the North and the South were similar. White supremacy was a given even among abolitionists. Northern and Western states did not want blacks, and many had laws restricting their freedom and ability to settle.

Here is a thought experiment to make the point. Imagine the following in the year 1865:

• The population of New York and Pennsylvania is 40% to 50% black and blacks do not have the vote.

• There will be an election in both states in 12 months where blacks can vote for the first time.

• A small percentage of white voters will be disenfranchised for supporting their State over the national government.

• The Federal government begins educating blacks on voting and promoting one party over another through government agencies analogous to the Freedman’s Bureau.

• Schools are set up for the general education of blacks and they tend to promote the same political party.

• Out of state charitable organizations focused on the black population are promoting the same party as the federal government agency.

• It is clear the result of these combined efforts will be that the established political power in the state will be curtailed if not removed altogether.

It defies human nature and history to expect that the reaction to such a scenario would result in anything other than chaos, violence, and resentment. The South was not atypical in its response. It is a disingenuous and politically based analysis to expect, as Eric Foner says, the " experiment in genuine interracial democracy" to have succeeded. Quit blaming the South for the failure.